Reactions that are conducted in solution such as, for example, chemical, biological, biochemical and molecular biological reactions, are frequently carried out within a chamber or other container. Such chambers, or reaction vessels, are commonly made of glass or plastic and include, for example, test tubes, microcentrifuge tubes, capillary tubes and microtiter plates. Reaction chambers currently in use are not amenable for use with volumes below one microliter, due to problems such as large head volumes in the reaction chamber leading to evaporative losses of the reaction solution, and difficulty in adding and removing reaction mixtures from the reaction chamber.
Many types of biochemical reactions, for example, nucleic acid amplification, require temperature cycling. Many reaction chamber materials are poor thermal conductors, thus there are time lags associated with changing the temperature of the reaction vessel and equilibration of a temperature change throughout the sample volume. Such lags in temperature change and temperature equilibration lead to longer cycle times, non-uniform reaction conditions within a single reaction, and lack of reproducibility among multiple reactions, both simultaneous and sequential.
It is often necessary to carry out a series of experiments on a set of identical samples. Usually this set of samples must be serially duplicated, either manually or by means of robotic liquid delivery systems. These processes can be slow, as they depend on the total number of samples to be duplicated and, if applicable, the speed of the robot.
Efforts to address the aforementioned problems have included the use of robotics and the use of capillary thermal cyclers, e.g., the Light Cycler® (Idaho Technologies). See Wittwer et al. (1997a) BioTechniques 22:130-138, and Wittwer et al. (1997b) BioTechniques 22:176-181. However, such methods and apparatuses still require sample volumes of several microliters, involve difficult liquid handling procedures such as loading and emptying capillaries, and can involve detection problems associated with capillary geometry and spacing.
Microarrays comprising an ordered array of biological molecules (e.g., peptides, oligonucleotides) on a solid surface are known. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,445,934; 5,510,270; 5,605,662; 5,632,957; 5,744,101; 5,807,522 5,929,208 and PCT publication WO 99/19510. While these are useful for analyzing multiple molecules under identical conditions (e.g., hybridizing a plurality of different oligonucleotide sequences with a single probe or probe mixture), such a “chip” cannot be used for analysis of multiple samples under multiple experimental conditions. Furthermore, such arrays are limited to analysis of molecules which can either be synthesized on the array substrate or covalently attached to the substrate in an ordered array. In addition, molecules tethered to an array react with slower kinetics than do molecules in solution, and are sterically hindered in their interactions resulting in altered reaction kinetics. Additionally, for arrays of proteins and peptides, surface interactions affect the natural conformation of proteins under investigation (MacBeath and Schreiber, Science, vol 289, pp. 1760-1763).
WO 99/34920 discloses a system and method for analyzing a plurality of liquid samples, the system comprising a platen having two substantially parallel planar surfaces and a plurality of through-holes dimensioned so as to maintain a liquid sample in each through-hole by means of surface tension. WO 00/56456 discloses a method for holding samples for analysis and an apparatus thereof includes a testing plate with a pair of opposing surfaces and a plurality of holes. WO 99/47922 discloses vascularized perfused microtissue/micro-organ arrays. U.S. Pat. No. 5,290,705 discloses a specimen support for optical observation or analysis, the support comprising a disc-like member composed of a rigid material and having at least one unobstructed hole extending therethrough.
Polynucleotides may be sheared through transfer methods such as pipetting. One method for reducing polynucleotide shear is to use pipet tips with the tip ends cut off for polynucleotide transfer. Other methods for reducing polynucleotide shear have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,147,198; 4,861,448; 5,599,664; 5,888,723; and 5,840,862.
There is a continued need for apparatuses and methods suitable for microvolume liquid reactions. There is also a need for improved methods of transferring polynucleotides.
All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.